




Norijada is the colloquial name of the celebration day for Zagreb secondary school students, which usually falls on the May 30. On that day, seniors from all around Zagreb are officially entitled to mark the end of their schooling, and "go crazy" (noriti or ludovati) for the last time before setting out for more serious business, preparation for graduation and university studies. Anthropologically speaking, it was a kind of a rite of passage toward adulthood. This ritual – most probably originating in the post-war period – in the classics program secondary school in the late 1980s was especially colourful because the students would wear ancient Roman costumes in order to highlight the orientation of the school. These were typically white togas for boys and luxurious white long dresses for girls. One also had to pay attention to authentic hairstyles and jewellery, because it significantly contributed to the overall impression. On this occasion the school students would act out rather loudly and colourfully.
The standard activities generally transpired as follows: first, the students would gather on the main staircase of their school, and begin singing songs that usually describe different (bad) traits of their teachers, who had to remain quiet for the sake of peace. The ties with their student status were visibly broken, and equality with the adult world, which allowed some degree of criticism, was perhaps the inherent meaning of this procedure. At the end of this event, one of the students, usually the funniest, would read the ‘last testament’ of the departing generation to the younger ones. The testament usually consisted of the ten commandments, which reversed the house rules of the school (for instance, “Never greet a teacher when one passes by or near you,” etc.). The first part of separation was thus finished, and the students would finally leave the school. They went out to the streets to meet students from other schools and display solidarity with them. This was the moment when real Norijada began, and students officially announced their separation from their previous life. On that day the students were allowed to do anything (except commit crimes). They would wander around, or swim in the wishing well and other fountains, or tease chance passers-by. They would usually get dead drunk and smoke heavily, and everybody was invited to do so because everybody was supposed to feel the same way. Moreover, in order to leave some trace of their “crazy” generation, students usually wrote graffiti on walls, citing their class, school and the year of the Norijada.

In May 1989, Dr Sorin Costina decided to sum up on paper the principal steps by which his passion for collecting art had developed. The result of this effort of memory is an eleven-page text, typed single-spaced, in which are mentioned the most important landmarks of an unusual and spectacular passion. “Also in the years 1962 to 1963 I had my first contacts (as Paul Neagu puts it) with the visual, or the visual arts. A first shock, an exhibition from the Dresden Galleries seen at the Museum of the Republic (I still remember the reviews, my favourite magazine in those years: second-rate works and rather weak with the exception of Titian’s Lady in White). For what I was then, it was a great festive event,” recalls Sorin Costina, speaking of one of his first encounters with the visual arts. He places his first encounter with contemporary art two years later: “Finally, my first contacts with contemporary art took place in Iaşi in 1965.” According to his notes, on 16 August 1969 he bought his first picture, The Bridge of the Turk, a scene in the old town of Sibiu by Ferdinand Mazanek. The price was 138 lei. His records of his purchases of items of visual art were kept in detail until 1989. According to this unpublished document, Sorin Costina bought most of the works that today make up his private art collection from galleries and studios in Bucharest. The last sentence of this testimony is particularly relevant for the way in which Sorin Costina conceived his own collection: “The marginalisation of all that is best in Romanian culture explains my ability to approach these figures of great value while unfortunately not rising to their level.” Small extracts from this document (which is also an account of the life of Dr Sorin Costina) have been cited in various texts about Sorin Costina’s life or within several autobiographical texts by the author himself. The text has never been published in its entirety. The manuscript is to be found in Sorin Costina’s private collection.




At the Memorial to the Revolution in Timişoara may be seen Lorenţ Fecioru’s vest with the holes made by the bullets that killed him and the traces left by their victim’s blood. This object with a profound emotional charge was donated in 1999 by the mother of the hero-martyr. The material traces of the violent death of this young man are symbolic for all the young people who, with the recklessness and courage of youth, took part in the Revolution of 1989. At the same time, the manner in which he met his death is illustrative of the repression that followed in the days immediately after the outbreak of the popular revolt in Timişoara. Along with over 1,000 others, Lorenţ Fecioru is a martyr of the bloody events that led to the change of regime in 1989 and one of those to whom all Romanians are indebted for the freedom that they enjoy today. It is a civic duty of all Romanian citizens to preserve their memory, a duty that the Memorial has taken upon itself to pass on to generations who did not experience the Revolution of 1989.
Lorenţ Fecioru was one of those who, alongside the poet Ion Monoran, took part in the stopping of trams in Maria Square on 16 December. He died in the night of 17–18 December from the effects of a bullet fired by a sniper straight into his heart. In the public documents issued after the Revolution of 1989, it was initially stated that Lorenţ Fecioru was shot on the steps of the Cathedral of Timişoara. The facts, however, are otherwise, albeit equally tragic. Two decades after the tragedy played out, Lorenţ Fecioru’s youngest son related for a national newspaper what actually happened to his father: “My father was shot by a sniper in the night of 17–18 December. In the Securitate files photographs have been found that were taken during the day, when my father and some of his colleagues from work went out into the street and climbed onto tramcars, onto buses. I understand that in the file is written ‘mission accomplished.’ He was on the balcony with his friends that evening, telling them that he had seen when the photographer took pictures of them and that he was afraid to go out onto the balcony. The moment he went out onto the balcony he was shot. I saw the bullet that killed him, because he was shot in the heart and the bullet came out through his back and ricocheted off two walls in the house. His friends took him to the morgue, and by ‘good fortune’ they found a coffin, otherwise he would have been incinerated like the others.” This version is confirmed by researchers at the Memorial to the Revolution. Gino Rado, the vice-president of the Memorial, mentions that Lorenţ Fecioru was on the balcony at his home on Calea Şagului in Timişoara when he was fatally shot. The vest donated by the family of the hero-martyr Lorenţ Fecioru is on the same ground-floor level of the building of the Memorial to the Revolution in Timişoara, very close to the corner dedicated to the child-martyr Cristina Lungu.


Upon receiving the highest French order of merit for military and civil merits – the National Order of the Legion of Honour (Ordre national de la Légion d'honneur) in 1989, Croatian sociologist Rudi Supek (1913-1993) granted an interview to Radio Zagreb in which he talked about his life and, among other things, about his opposition activities. He was awarded due to his activities as one of the organisers of resistance in the Nazi concentration camp in Buchenwald and due to his contribution to the development of sociology as a science and his cultural work with France. In the interview, he said that five years earlier (1984), he was awarded for his scholarly work, which was, in his opinion, even more important. But that fact was ignored in Yugoslavia at the time. He stated that the authorities did not like him because he insisted on the stance that there is no socialism without democracy. He said that he was a sympathiser and a member of communist parties (CP of Yugoslavia and CP of France) from the mid-1930s to 1948, but that he later did not want to be involved in Stalinist and Comintern-type of parties. He stated that he returned from France to Yugoslavia because for patriotic reasons, although he had much better conditions to continue his academic career abroad, in France, the USA or Canada. He also spoke about the problems of socialist systems in which there is a negative selection of personnel, stating that the monopoly of a single party promotes careerists and mediocrity. According to Supek, the advancement of society, especially in the economy, requires a free democratic political system. He also talked about his engagement in the environmental movement and his book, which had just been published in its third edition. He said that the crisis of socialism was a result of the fact that socialism had remained wedded to the concept of industrial society. He felt it necessary, globally, to transition to a post-industrial society that would not be based on exploitation of nature and humanity itself, to enter into a new type of socialism.



The photo made by Tomasz Sikorski in 1989 or 1990 shows the wall of the underground passage under Rozdroże square in Warsaw. The square, located in the center of the city, is a transport junction where Warsaw citizens everyday change a bus. The walls of the underground passage were an attractive space for the graffiti creators who put there their tags and stencil graffiti. That way, the spontaneous, informal graffiti gallery emerged there.On the picture there are visible the stencil graffiti by Towarzystwo Malarzy Pokojowych (Association of Peaceful Painters), for example one with the Superman posture with the face of general Wojciech Jaruzelski, acronym PZPR (Polish United Workers’ Party) on his chest – a token of the affirmative and in the same time waggish attitude toward the ones in power, placed in the same line with the pop culture heroes. Another stencil graffiti depicted general Jaruzelski with a mohawk, dressed as a punk in a leather jacket. There is also a graffiti with characteristic inscription ‘Solidarność’ (Solidarity) and Israel’s flag above it what one can interpret as an anti-Semitic connection of mass union movement with the Jewish influences.









![Homoród Bálint [Béla Nóvé]: Kétség és remény közt: Erdélyről sokadszorra, 1989.](/courage/file/n54992/035.jpg)




A flyer for a solidarity event held at the Vienna Volkstheater on March 5, 1989, by large Viennese theaters to support Václav Havel. Václav Havel was arrested on January 16 for attending a demonstration during Palach Week, and in February was sentenced to nine months in prison. After his appeal and many foreign protests, the sentence was reduced and Havel was conditionally released in May 1989.
The leaflet shows the interest of the western public in the fate of Václav Havel, the most prominent representative of the Czechoslovak cultural and political opposition.
The flyer was exhibited at the exhibition „Czech Republic. Austria. Divorced - Separated - United / Lower Austria State Exhibition 2009 / State Chateau and City Gallery, Hasičský dům, Telč




The cover of the classroom samizdat was designed for the matriculation of students from class 4K in 1989. It parodies the exceptional case of the Educational Centre for Languages, which retained the teaching of Latin and Greek despite the Šuvar school reforms by using the very popular comic strip Asterix.
The cartoon paraphrases the first sentences of the popular comic: “In the year 1974 AD, all schools in Croatia were subject to the so-called Education Reform . All? Well, not entirely. One small school north of Andautonia [an ancient Roman town near Zagreb] has been mounting resistance to this reform persistently for years. This is a story about a generation of its dwellers…“
The victorious Roman eagle carries a flag with Šuvar's slogan “School and factory” and beneath it there is a plaque, which instead of the Latin SPQR (senatus populusque Romanus) carries the abbreviation for Yugoslavia, that is, SFRJ (Socijalistička Federativna Republika Jugoslavija).
The last poem in the samizdat is “Don't give up, our Classical School, don't give up, our youth,” which pays a tribute to the school's classical curriculum and its exceptional status (“Oh, our reformed Classical School/Hold on tight!/We know that it's not easy/in this world./In this world of strictly directed heads.”)






The collection of the Archives of the Peace Movement in Ljubljana contains 58 boxes of archival materials accumulated by the activity of the Centre for the Culture of Peace and Non-violence in Ljubljana, as well as the democratic opposition and the forerunner of civil society in the 1980s and 1990s in Slovenia. The collection testifies to peace-making activities of a part of Slovenian society which advocated greater democracy of in Slovene society and citizen involvement in policy-making.



Több frissen megalakult demokratikus párt és polgári szervezet tartott demonstrációt a Vörösmarty téren 1989. március 2-án a csehszlovákiai ellenzéket ért atrocitások, így Vaclav Havel bebörtönzésének hatására, a „polgári aktivisták sorozatos bebörtönzése ellen” címmel. A 4-600 fős tüntetés egyik fotóját a „Vétkesek közt cinkos, aki néma” feliratú transzparens látható. Nagy valószínűséggel Kurta István készítette a felvételt.





Some of the photographs taken by Lucian Ionică are snapshots of moments of high drama. Among them, those “hard to look at” images from the Paupers’ Cemetery, with the bodies of those killed by the repressive forces of the communist regime, hastily buried by the representatives of those forces, and then disinterred in order to be laid to rest in a fitting manner. There are also in the collection some photographs with portraits of children wounded during the Revolution of December 1989 in Timişoara. They were taken in the Timişoara Children’s Hospital on 24 December. The photographs show the wounded children in bed; the three snapshots include portraits of two boys and a girl. “For a few years after I took those photos I tried to trace the children I had photographed. I couldn’t find them, although I tried repeatedly. In the confusion and the strong emotions of the events back then, I didn’t have the inspiration to make a note of their names. Today I don’t know what has become of them, what they are doing,” says Lucian Ionică, confessing his regret at being unable to follow the story of those whose drama he immortalized in December 1989. “In the Timişoara Revolution, there were a lot of teenagers in the street. However the repressive forces had no compunction about firing at them. They were victims of the Army in the first place. Opening fire on minors is impossible to accept. Of course it is not justified against adults either, but the brutal actions of the soldiers against the children show how faithful those in the forces of repression were to Nicolae Ceauşescu,” is the comment of Gino Rado, the vice-president of the Memorial to the Revolution in Timişoara, summing up the tragic consequences of the involvement of forces loyal to the communist regime in the repression of the demonstrators, including minors (Szabo and Rado 2016). According to research carried out at the Memorial to the Revolution in Timişoara, as well as other official statistics documenting the scale of the repression in the city in December 1989, at least six children or adolescents under the age of 18 were killed in this symbolic city of the Romanian Revolution. The youngest hero-martyr was Cristina Lungu; when she was fatally shot in December 1989, she was only two years old.


1989. május 21. - június 29. - Görög Templom Kiállítóterem, Vác, megnyitotta: dr. Németh Lajos
A gyűjteményt megalapozó kutatási program részeként, egy éves előkészület után rendezte meg Bárdosi József a Feltámasztott minézis (1955-1988) című kiállítást, mellyel egyben kijelölte a gyűjteményfejlesztés irányát. Olyan figurális-leképező műalkotásokat állított ki, amelyek valamilyen formában reflektálnak az 1960 és 89 közötti időszak társadalmi valóságára.
Ez a reflexió a kritikai, konceptuális, minimalista, hiperrealista és radikális irányzatok által vezérelt, ezért idézőjelben értendő realizmus nyelvén fogalmazódik meg. A hiperrealizmus hazai típusai végső soron ellentétébe fordították az irányzat eredeti törekvését, hogy megfogalmazzák politikai és esztétikai mondanivalójukat.
Művészek: Barabás Márton, Bernáth(y) Sándor, Birkás Ákos, Csenus Tibor, Czene Gábor, Dinnyés László, Fehér László, Gál Tamás, Gyémánt László, Jovián György, Kéri Ádám, Kéri László, Kocsis Imre, Konkoly Gyula, Korga György, Lakner László, Mácsai István, Marosvári György, Méhes László, Nolipa István Pál, Nyári István, Orvos András, Patay László, Sarkadi Péter, Szakáll Ágnes, Székelyhidi Attila, Szabó Ákos, Szkok Iván, Tardos Zoltán, Tamás Noémi, Várady Róbert, Varkoly László, Záborszky Gábor, Zrínyifalvi Gábor.




Cristina Lungu was the youngest hero-martyr of the Revolution of December 1989 in Timişoara. When shed died, shot in the heart by one of the bullets fired from the roof of the Research Centre on Calea Girocului, Cristina Lungu was only two and a half years old. She died on Str. Ariş in Timişora, at the crossing with Calea Girocului, in her father’s arms with her mother beside her. Her destiny is symptomatic for the fate of most of the over 1,000 victims of the Romanian Revolution of 1989, who lost their lives not in a direct clash with the apparatus of repression, but because they happened to be in the wrong place at the wrong time when a stray or ricocheting bullet cut short their lives.
The tragic moment is recounted as follows in one of the books published by the publishing house of the Memorial to the Revolution in Timişoara: “There was a moment of respite, around 10 pm, after intense shooting close by, on Calea Girocului. They came out at the crossing of Str. Negoi with Str. Arieş and Calea Girocului. At a certain moment, Cristina fell. Her father thought she had tripped, because there had been no particular noise. When he picked her up, Doru Lungu noticed that blood was flowing from her mouth. Then he ran with her to the County Emergency Hospital: “And it was only in the morning, about 4 am, that I found out, someone told me, that in fact she had been shot and had died on the spot. I wanted, because someone there had told me, to run quickly to the Morgue to take her, because otherwise I would never be able to get her.” Because he was afraid that her body would disappear for ever in the criminal action of erasing the traces of the repression of the popular revolt, her father was determined to take her from the Morgue, although it would have been almost impossible to bury her officially, because he had no documents. But he did not reach her, because he was given advice to take care and not to put himself in danger, because two people from the Securitate were at the Morgue, carrying out investigations into the deceased. It was only in the afternoon of Thursday 21 December that he managed to recover her body, his good fortune (if one can speak of good fortune in these circumstances) being that she had not been put in the batch that would arrive in Bucharest for incineration.” (Szabo 2014)
On the ground floor of the building of the Memorial to the Revolution in Timişora there is a thematic corner dedicated to this heroine-martyr. Her portrait, donated by her family to the institution in 2001, is covered by a pane of glass pierced in the middle by the impact of a bullet. The pane comes from a shop in the centre of Timişoara, in Opera Square, a place where there were violent exchanges of fire between 17 and 22 December 1989. In connection with the tragic case of this youngest victim of the December 1989 events in Timişoara, the portfolio of the Memorial also contains some testimonies by her parents and information that helps to place Cristina Lungu in both her historical and her family context.


Krzysztof Skiba, ‘Komisariat naszym domem. Pomarańczowa historia’, Warsaw: Narodowe Centrum Kultury, 2015.Tomasz Sikorski, Marcin Rutkiewicz, 'Graffiti w Polsce 1940-2010', Warsaw: carta blanca, 2011.


Ez a legépelt beszélgetés eredetileg Diósi Pál prostitúcióval kapcsolatos kötetében, az 1990-ben megjelent Ez nem kéjutazás című műben kapott volna helyet. Diósi Pál – aki eredetileg kazettára vette fel a beszélgetéseit, majd támogatás híján azokat saját költségén legépeltette – az említett interjúban egy zsidó származású férfival beszélgetett, aki többször is igénybe vette egy prostituált szolgáltatásait. A Gondolat Kiadó szerkesztője úgy gondolta, hogy káros lenne a budapesti zsidóság számára, ha kiderülne, hogy izraelita származású férfiak is járnak örömlányokhoz, így végül az interjú kéziratban maradt.





The Lucian Ionică private collection is one of the few collections of snapshots taken during the tensest and most feverish days of the Romanian Revolution of December 1989 in the city of Timişoara, the place where the popular revolt against the communist dictatorship first broke out. The photographic documents in this collection preserve the memory both of the dramatic moments before the change of regime and of the days immediately after the fall of Nicolae Ceauşescu, when sudden freedom of expression produced moments no less significant for the recent history of Romania.






Az 1989-90-ben újonnan megalakuló demokratikus szervezetek közül jó néhány élvezte a Soros Alapítvány támogatását. 1989 tavaszára Magyarország félúton tartott a politikai átmenetben: a kommunista egypártrendszer politikai monopóliuma már megrengett, ugyanakkor a civil társadalom és a demokratikus erők még nem tudták áttörni a 41 éves monolitikus rezsim megkövesedett struktúráját.
A demokratikus szerveződések elé egyre kevesebb törvényi és politikai akadály emelkedett. Az ébredező társadalom és a politikai ellenzék számára a leginkább gátló tényezőt a finanszírozás és a médiafelület hiánya jelentette. Nagy űr tátongott az olyan független médiacsatornák és nyomtatott sajtóorgánumok helyén, amelyek hatékonyan informálhatták volna a nyilvánosságot a legfőbb politikai változásokról. Hasonlóképpen nem létezett megfelelő nyilvános fóruma vagy hivatalos infrastruktúrája az újonnan induló helyi és országos mozgalmaknak, pártkezdeményezéseknek, szervezeteknek, diák kluboknak, szakszervezeteknek, stb. Az új pártok megalakulásának felgyorsuló folyamata párhuzamosan a demokratikus ellenzék kerekasztal-tárgyalásaival majd az országos szintű egyeztetésekkel világossá tették, hogy az ellenzéki erők által használt hagyományos félig-meddig konspiráláson alapuló, amatőr stratégiák teljesen elégtelenek a monopolisztikus politikai rendszer kimozdítására.
A Magyar Soros Alapítvány a független civil kezdeményezések fő támogatójaként már kezdettől fogva érzékelte, eljött az ideje a demokrácia nyílt támogatásának. 1989 tavaszán Soros egy millió dollárnyi összeget ajánlott fel a megalakuló demokratikus szervezetek számára. A tervezett projekt gyakorlati részleteit a felállított kuratórium vitatta meg ülésein. Ezután tették közzé a jelentkezési felhívást, májusban pedig Sólyom László vezetésével megalakult egy operatív bizottság a projekt irányítására. Részt vette ebben a munkában többek között Fodor Gábor, Hankiss Elemér, Kardos László és az alapítvány titkárság tagjai.
Az új támogatási forma, ahogyan az várható volt, rövid idő alatt nagyon népszerűvé vált és a jelentkezési határidőket végül hat alkalommal nyolc hónapra kellett hosszabbítani, ezáltal több mint a duplájára emelkedett a projektre szánt összeg annak, amit Soros eredetileg tervezett. (Ez majdnem szünet nélküli rohamot eredményezett, amelyet jól tükröz a tény, mi szerint 1990 októberében még mindig 25 új támogatási kérvényből álló csomag várt elfogadásra.) 1989-ben 353 jelentkezés érkezett az ország különböző részeiről. A projekt első éve alatt az alapítvány tanácsadó testülete 157 jelentkező kérvényének adott helyet és összesen 44 millió forintnyi támogatást osztott szét. Emellett elengedhetetlenül fontos felszereléseket biztosított: így megvásárolt a nyertes pályázók számára 49 fénymásolót, 26 számítógépet, 12 telefax készüléket, 6 hangrögzítős telefont és 3 lézer nyomtatót.
A Magyar Soros Alapítványhoz 198 –1990-ben sikeresen pályázók közül álljon itt néhány.
Országos mozgalmak és szervezetek: Halálbüntetést Ellenzők Ligája, Független Jogász Fórum, Emberi Jogok Magyar Ligája, Menedék Bizottság, Szolidaritás Szakszervezeti Munkásszövetség, Raoul Wallenberg Egyesület (Budapest-Pécs), Történelmi Igazságtétel Bizottság, Szegényeket Támogató Alap, Független Szakszervezetek, Tudományos Dolgozók Demokratikus Szakszervezete, Szabad Szakszervezetekért Alapítvány.
Egyházi szervezetek: Evangélikus Ifjúsági Szövetség, Keresztény Ökumenikus Baráti Társaság, Magyar Protestáns Közművelődési Egyesület.
Kisebbségi szervezetek: Erdélyi Magyarok Egyesülete, Rákóczi Szövetség, Magyar Zsidó Kulturális Egyesület, Phralipe Független Cigány Szervezet, FII CU NŐI Egyesület.
Környezetvédelmi mozgalmak: Duna Kör, Független Ökológiai Központ, Holocén Természetvédelmi Egyesület.
A nagyjából 500 egyéni jelentkező, 201 szervezet és orgánum (nyomtatott sajtó, helyi rádió és tv-csatorna) értékes pénzügyi és tárgyi támogatást kapott a Soros Alapítványtól. A projekt – a hatszor meghosszabbított határidővel – 1990 végéig tartott és az eredetileg erre szánt összegnek több mint dupláját osztották szét, több mint két millió dollárt.
A projekt teljes dokumentációja (jelentkezési dokumentumok, támogatólevelek, adminisztratív jelentések, a kuratóriumi ülések jegyzőkönyvei, újságcikk-kivágatok, a korábbi titkos rendőrség aktái) a Nyílt Társadalom Archívumban lelhető fel. A támogatott szervezetek részletes listáját a Soros alapítvány 1989-es és 1990-es évkönyveiben is publikálták, amely online elérhető.





Samizdat magazines appeared in Bulgaria only at the end of the 1980s. Two important Bulgarian samizdat magazines were conceived together, their first issues were published at the same time: "Glas. Nezavisimo spisanie za literatura i publitsistika [Voice. Independent Magazine for Literature and Journalism]" with founder and editor-in-chief Vladimir Levchev and "Most. Almanah za eksperimentalna poezia [Bridge: Almanac for Experimental Poetry]" with founder and chief editor Edvin Sugarev. Both magazines were printed on typewriter and reproduced on xerox at no more than 100-200 copies. The first issue of "Glas [Voice]" was reproduced on documentary photo paper. The artist was Stefan Despodov, who created the covers by hand. The magazine was produced in the bathroom of Vladimir Levchev, which was turned into a photo laboratory.
Vladimir Levchev says: "In the autumn of 1988, the Club for Publicity and Democracy, then known as the Klub za glasnost i preustroystvo [Club for Glasnost and Reconstruction] was organized. At the end of December, enthusiastic about the new developments, Edvin and I spontaneously decided to start a Samizdat magazine. We acted very expeditious. Since then there were two accessible xerox machines in Sofia and they were under surveillance, and there were no computers at all, the 'samizdat' was, of course, a technically difficult task. On Edvin's idea, we bought two-sided photo paper, and using my bathroom for a lab, after a week's work, we produced around 100 counts of two independent magazines, Edvin's 'Most' and 'Bridge'. We photographed each page printed on a typewriter - it was like a hand paved street ... First we thought of making two issues of one magazine so that if we were arrested after the first issue, we would do a second one. But then we switched to two different magazines. After we prepared the issues, we distributed them to friends, famous 'dissidents', people with access to a copy machine at their office, who could made more copies. ... The first issues of the two magazines came out in January 1989.
In January 1989, with Blaga Dimitrova, I signed the letter in support of Petar Manolov and became a member of the Club [for publicity and democracy] and then of 'Ekoglasnost'. A little later, Deutsche Welle, the BBC and Radio Free Europe reported about the magazine, and in the autumn, during the Eko-Forum, Rumyana Uzunova also took an interview with me. I was released from the magazine I worked at at that time, “Narodna Kultura” ['People's Culture'] and fined 500 leva for issuing an unregistered magazine. They called me to the Bulgarian Book and Print Association [i.e. the censorship authority] and I was threatened that if I publish another issue, I will be fined 1,500 levs, and State Security will deal with my case and I will probably go to jail. I did, however, issue another issue - this was during a 'Ekoglasity' subscription […], an eco-forum. No one could even suspect that even on November 10, 1989 Zhivkov would resign. Until 10th of November 1989, I published four issues." (quoted after interview of V. Levchev, Rudnikova 2006)In the first issue of the magazine "Glas [Voice]" the founder Vladimir Levchev - after the introduction ending with the words "It [Bulgaria] yearns for a little publicity, for democracy!" - statet the main objectives of the magazine as “to publish mainly literature, poetry, criticism and essays, which hardly can find a place on the pages of the official jurnals”, as well as of critical texts on ecological, economic and social problems, written by Bulgarian and foreign authors.
Both samizdat magazines cooperated with well-known Bulgarian intellectuals who published their critical views of the regime: the writer-dissidents Blaga Dimitrova, Radoy Ralin, Valeri Petrov, Binyo Ivanov, Dragomir Petrov; the emmigrants Tzvetan Todorov, Atanas Slavov, Tsvetan Marangozov and many other well-known authors parallel to young authors such as Rumen Leonidov, Anni Ilkov, Mirela Ivanova, Virginia Zaharieva, Elisaveta Musakova, Ilko Dimitrov, Hristo Stoyanov, Antoaneta Tzeneva, Boryana Katsarska and other; the critics Aleksandar Kyosev, Mihail Nedelchev, Alexander Yordanov; the philosophers Zhelyu Zhelev (the later president of the country), Ivan Krastev, Kalin Yanakiev and others.
After the fall of the communist regime, "Glas" and "Most" were legalized. Many independent journals appeared, even printing became expensive. The magazine "Glas" remained a literary magazine, the publishing of several issues was sponsored by the Open Society Foundation of George Soros. In 1994, Editor-in-Chief Vladimir Levchev left for the United States. For several years he kept the magazine on the Internet, and in Sofia Rumen Leonidov and Vladimir Trendafilov published several more issues. The last issue of the magazine "Glas" was num. 14/1994.
Today, "Glas" and "Most" magazines are bibliographic rarities. Thanks to the "Free Poetry Society", created in 1990 by Blaga Dimitrova, Vladimir Levchev, Edvin Sugarev and other writers, and re-organized in 2016, all issues of the two magazines are uploaded with free access to the website of their society, www.freepoetrysociety.com.



Antanas Miškinis (1905-1983) was a Lithuanian poet and Soviet political prisoner. He started his creative activity in the mid-1920s. In the mid-1940s, he joined the Lithuanian partisan movement, for which he was convicted and sent to Siberia. While serving his sentence, he wrote romantic poems (psalms). Many of them were copied out or learned by heart by other Lithuanian political prisoners at that time in Siberia. The collection holds psalms and poetry written by Miškinis during his imprisonment from 1948 to 1956.




A folyóirat szerkesztésekor alapelvként fogadták el, hogy ők egymagukban képtelenek gyökeresen változtatni kisebbségi helyzetükön, ehhez szükség van az országon belüli demokratikus fordulatra. Ez sorsközösség-gondolathoz vezetett: az őket érő előnytelen megkülönböztetés csak akkor foszlik szét, ha velük együtt a többségi nemzet ugyancsak megszabadul a rátelepedő diktatúrától. Volt tehát találkozási felület a kisebbségiek és azon demokratikus érzelmű, nem politizáló román személyek között, akik ha a kisebbségi elnyomást nem is érezték saját bőrükön, de a demokrácia hiányát annál inkább. A szerkesztőket az elégedetlenségükhöz eszmetársat kereső koncepció vezérelte. Emiatt lapjuk néha kétnyelvűvé vált. Amikor szükségét érezték, nemcsak magyarra fordították román eszmetársuk egyes fontos szövegeit, hanem román nyelven is közölték ezeket. Doina Corneában – aki kiállásban, áldozatvállalásban, rendszerbírálatban példaképnek számított – olyan munkatársat avattak, aki az elején nem is sejtette, hogy együttműködik velük, hiszen tudta nélkül vettek át tőle nyilatkozatokat – elsősorban a Szabad Európa Rádióból –, és leveleztek vele a lap hasábjain.
A magyar–román egymásra találás első lépése a Fraților – Testvérek röpcédula közlése volt, amelyben a nyelvész Cs. Gyimesi Éva és a báb- és képzőművész, prózaíró Ivan Chelu közösen tiltakoztak a falurombolás ellen. A Corneával megteremtett kapcsolat indításaként előbb egy azonosítatlan román értelmiségi vele folytatott beszélgetését közölték („Találkozás Doina Corneával”), majd közreadták a „Levél a Szentatyához” című írását. A szerkesztők és Cornea elgondolásai igen nagy felületen találkoztak, de az előbbieknek nem egy fenntartásuk volt arra nézve, ahogyan utóbbi látta a korabeli helyzetet. Mindennek ellenére, azonban az nyomott a latban, hogy végre akadt egy kivételes román értelmiségi, akivel sok mindenben szót érthettek, és adott esetben ütköztethették a véleményüket, „ám úgy, miként ez az egy táboron belüliek között eszmetisztázó szándékkal szokásos”. Elfogadták tehát Cornea szolidaritásra, nemzetiségre való tekintet nélküli összefogásra szóló felhívását, és minden fenntartás nélkül aláírták biztatását arra nézve, hogy ne próbáljanak erőszakhoz folyamodni. Vele együtt vallották, hogy Romániában intézményi válság van, és ezek mögött mindenhol ott munkálkodik a Securitate. Az egyetértés kiterjedt arra is, hogy az országban be kell tartani a törvényeket, nem kevésbé a nemzetközi egyezményeket, csakhogy a szerkesztők pontosítása ezt meghaladta: úgy vélték, hogy ez kevés a magyar kisebbségnek, és alapvető jogi rendezésre van szükség, amely nem a „szocialista”, hanem a valódi demokráciát biztosítja nemcsak számukra, hanem minden román állampolgárnak is. Az aktivitásra serkentés Cornea-féle elképzelésével egyetértettek, de hogy e tevékenységre késztetés mögött milyen mozgatóerő húzódik meg, illetve, hogy milyennek kell lennie magának a praxisnak, már jórészt eltérő volt az álláspontjuk. Tudomásul vették, hogy Cornea nem kíván politikus lenni, elsősorban a moráltan oldaláról szemlélődik és szerinte legfőképpen erkölcsi megújulásra van szükség, mert e nélkül lehetetlen a politikai változás. A szerkesztők viszont politizálni akartak, legalábbis a nyomtatott szóval. Kételkedtek abban, hogy az erkölcsi krízis feloldása elvezet a politikai válság megoldásához. Ugyanakkor elfogadták azt is, miszerint az akkori állapotokban nekik, mindnyájuknak, tanúnak kell lenniük, és hogy a tanúskodást követnie kell a cselekvésnek.
Ezek után párbeszéd indult meg Doina Corneával, az akkor már Európa-szerte ismert disszidens személyiséggel. Ennek az alaphangját Cs. Gyimesi Éva ütötte le egy magyarul is románul is leközölt, hozzá intézett nyílt levéllel (magyarul „Nyílt Levél Doina Corneának”, románul „Scrisoare deschisă D-nei Doina Cornea”), amelynek tartalma alapján, a címzett a közös élményekből azonosíthatta az „aláírás nélkülit”. Valójában egyoldalú dialógus volt ez, tulajdonképpen a lap munkatársai reflektáltak a tanárnő egyik vagy másik nyilatkozatára, viszontválaszt azonban nem kaptak. Amolyan kis nyilvánosságot kapott vita alakult ki közöttük, amelyben felhívták az eszmetárs figyelmét arra, hogy a kitűzött cél elérését, a gyökeres fordulatot Romániában, az övéitől különböző eszközökkel is szorgalmazni lehet, sőt kell. Óva intették, hogy még ő sem látja mindig eléggé árnyaltan, mit is akarnak ők, kisebbségiek, és mi az a többlet, ami a közöttük lévő „szövetségben” a közös elvárásokon úgymond túlmutat.
Gyimesi levelében finoman fogalmazott fenntartásait is papírra vetette. A „névtelen” levélíró furcsának tartotta, hogy címzettje azért nem kíván szorosabb kapcsolatokat kiépíteni a magyarokkal, mert nemzettársai a fejére olvassák: „eladta magát az idegeneknek”. Felmerült a kérdés: vajon ő csak úgy általában nem akar szervezkedni, vagy csupán velük nem kíván szervezett kapcsolatba lépni, miután ők „idegenek”? Cornea mélységesen sértve érezte magát azért, mert egykor valóban otromba sérelem érte őt nemzetiségi hovatartozása miatt egyetlen személy részéről, de Gyimesi figyelmeztette: az egyének által elkövetett bűnök miatt nem szabad a kollektív bűnösséget ráolvasni valamilyen közösségre. A szerkesztőség számára ez vezérelv volt. A románság részéről jövő számos sérelmet jeleztek, tiltakoztak ellene, de sohasem akarták románellenessé növelni ezeket a megrovásokat. Ezt várták el – Doina Corneától is – a másik oldalon irányukban. Ezután került sor a Gyimesi-levél leglényegesebb mondanivalójára, mely a magyarok és románok közötti kézfogás szimbóluma közé sűrűsödött és torkolt bele a szerkesztők mondanivalójában kiemelt helyet kapó transzilvanista eszmevilágban.
A Kiáltó Szó szerkesztőségének Doina Corneával folytatott levelezése ezt követően szélesebb mederbe terelődött. A következő napvilágot nem látó számokban még három episztolát adtak közre, ahol a disszidens asszony nyugati rádióadókban mondott nézeteit tisztázták, miután ez hozzátartozott a szerkesztői elgondoláshoz.




The leadership of the Romanian Greek Catholic Church, acting underground because their Church had been officially dissolved by the communist regime in December 1948, sent a memorandum to Ceauşescu in October 1989, in which they asked that the official status of their Church be restored. After the Greek Catholic Church was dissolved by the communist regime, its hierarchs and hundreds of priests continued to practise their confession clandestinely. This underground religious activity continued until the fall of the communist regime. During the 1980s the leadership of the Romanian Greek Catholic Church launched several initiatives that aimed at regaining official status. In 1989, these initiatives were encouraged by the open debates in the Soviet Union about the fate of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, which led to the restoration of the latter’s official status in December 1989. In this context, marked by the reforms initiated by Mikhail Gorbachev, the leadership of the Romanian Greek Catholic church asked Ceauşescu that the situation of the Church be discussed at the fourteenth Congress of the Romanian Communist Party, which was planned to take place in November 1989 and that their church regain its official status. In this respect, the Greek Catholic hierarchy invoked the state constitution. Article 30 of the 1965 Constitution stipulated that: “Freedom of conscience is guaranteed to all citizens of the Socialist Republic of Romania” (ACNSAS, FD 69, vol.1, ff. 45–46). In this respect the Greek Catholic hierarchy had the courage to mention the state repression that targeted their Church’s priesthood and parishioners after 1948, but also the harassment affecting Greek Catholic priests and parishioners at the time when the memorandum was drafted. The Securitate managed to confiscate a copy of this document and attached it to a file of the Documentary Fonds in order to illustrate the anti-State activities of the leadership of the Greek Catholic Church. The document was signed by several bishops and vicars: Alexandru Todea, Ioan Ploscaru, Vasile Hossu, Tertulian Langa, and Lucian Mureşan.

















Az 1989-ben Budapesten tartott több tucatnyi tüntetés, demonstráció közül kilenc titkosszolgálati fotódokumentációját az Állambiztonsági Szolgálatok Történeti Levéltára (ÁBTL) őrzi. 1989 januárjától ugyan törvény garantálta a szabad gyülekezési jogot, a politikai rendőrség a régi reflexek szerint követte nyomon az eseményeket és rögzítette is azokat – a résztvevő tüntetők beazonosíthatóságát és a használt transzparensek szövegének olvashatóságát biztosító – felvételein. Az utcai tiltakozások fotógyűjteménye egyrészt a –különféle civil szervezetekhez, jogvédőkhöz, művészcsoportokhoz, későbbi pártokhoz kötődő – események vizuális lenyomata, másrészt a politikai rendőrség rendszerváltás előtti, átmeneti hónapjaiban tanúsított ambivalens magatartásának is forrása.



